Dugiion (Worship)

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As this is a topic that is quite popular, and an extensive commentary of it would be worthy of an entire book itself, we will cover only some basics. It is also a topic loaded with opinions due to the myriad revivals of the spiritual practices of the Senogalatîs. Which is why it’s important to state that in this section, we’re mainly interested in talking about historically attested practices and interpretations thereof, so the intent is to tread lightly on speculation. We will do our best to keep such speculations as light and uncontroversial as possible. They’re necessary because in some cases, there isn’t much to analyze based solely off of artifacts and linguistics. There is much that we don’t know and contemporary revivals (like our own) by necessity sometimes improvise and utilise comparative study, etc. The focus of this commentary however, is on historical ones we either know about, or can more safely deduce. Without a doubt, two currents underpin the theological content of the beliefs of the Senogalatîs. They were both polytheistic and animistic. They were polytheistic in that they gave worship to specific beings known as Dêuoi (singular: Dêuos), this is generally translated as “gods”. Many inscriptions refer to the Dêuoi of whom in the broad regional sense we have found such inscriptions referring to a total of over 300. It is worth noting however, that the majority are found only in one or two inscriptions, suggesting that many were Dêuoi only worshipped in certain areas or by certain nations or localities. They were animistic as well, which can be evidenced in fact that many of the Dêuoi are named from animals and natural formations. Of the over 300 inscriptions to various Dêuoi, the majority were mentioned but once, suggesting a localized amalgamation of beings either worshipped or otherwise interacted with. Various places and natural formations were imbued with spirits.

It is true that there was no unified Senogalaticos “pantheon”, but such lore based connections and relations between the Dêuoi of a people or place are quite likely when seeing that such was the case with other Indo-European peoples (and beyond). In other words, there wasn’t one group of Dêuoi for all Senogalatîs, but there likely was for different nations and groups of them. At the least a group of Dêuoi that these nations and localities would have known and probably related in their lore. Again, based on what is known of other Indo-European groups, plus the prevalence of inscriptions to several different Dêuoi in a given area. The Senogalatîs also paid reverence to various natural places: rivers, caves, mountains, etc. Special reverence was given to certain animals (the boar being a good example). These support the conclusion that the Senogalatîs were animistic as well. Though it is worth noting that in their customs, the line between polytheistic and animistic (at least as per contemporary understanding) were quite heavily blurred and such modern terms would have held no importance to them at all. Such worship and reverence was simply what the people did. So while terms like polytheism and animism are helpful in an academic context, the Senogalatîs moved about the world of spirituality in a way that wouldn’t have paid any mind to those kinds of distinctions.

Their worldview would have greatly contrasted with more “world rejecting” spiritualities that came about and rose to prominence in later times. It would have had to, as the focal points of much of their reverence was in fact parts of the world itself. That said, terms like “nature spirituality” are only partly true. It often is a marker of romanticization to claim that they “worshipped nature” (nature itself a concept that comes into play only in the early modern era). In the process of their growth and technological advancements, the Senogalatîs actually denuded considerable amounts of forest and other “natural” places. They did not solely worship outside of the villages and dunâ (oppida), they in fact built many places – nemetâ (singular: nemeton) which were surrounded by small walls with a temple inside those walls. Thus signifying the importance of the boundary and enclosure in their worship activities. Even the oft romanticized sacred groves were heavily manicured spaces that were all too familiar with the human touch. Both of these types of worship took place. While this may seem contradictory to some contemporary observers, it is not. This is because both the wild and uncultivated and the manicured and controlled were inimical to the experience of life in their place of space and time. They understood their connection to the wild world as evidenced in their worship activities in such places, but also the world they had built for themselves to ensure their survival and growth evidenced in the nemetâ. These are as such not contradictions, but the complete panoply of the lives that they lived and the relationships that they cultivated. Like all peoples, they attempted to reconcile their material interests and their place in the great cosmic order of the world and existence. What degree of success they achieved or failures they had in that act can of course only be judged retrospectively, hindsight is the strongest sight our species has.

Words that the Senogalatîs left behind offer tantalizing clues as to the cosmological and spiritual ideas that they had. One example is the word Antumnos (the other world, or “not world”). This word implies that they imagined a realm different than their own, the abode of their ancestors (likely temporarily, you’ll see why later) and perhaps of some of their Dêuoi. Certainly not all, as many Dêuoi were very much seen as part and parcel to this one. Celestial, terrestrial, and chthonic cosmological “layers” can be gleaned from words like albios, bitus, and dubnos respectively. It’s also theorised by Xavier Delamarre, a noted historical linguist in Les Noms Gaulois that we can see an “axis” of these layers in the word Drus. Probably interpreted as a tree. This all allows for a basic cosmology to be constructed based on the words our ancestors left behind. 

There is also, like in most other cultures, a belief in the soul as an entity residing in the body. Our ancestors, thanks to the doctrines of the Druides believed the soul to be indestructible and that it would pass from one body to another. For this reason, we can quite comfortably deduce that a belief in reincarnation was present. Enough Senogalatîs believed it that it was a constant subject of mentions related to the Druides. Alexander Cornelius Polyhistor says:

“The Pythagorean doctrine prevails among the Gauls’ teaching that the souls of men are immortal, and that after a fixed number of years they will enter into another body.”

Alexander Cornelius

It is unknown if the Druides knew of Pythagorean teachings or not. So it cannot be said that they learned it from him. It’s probably that this belief was understood by Mediterranean peoples as associated with Pythagoras. This belief in the transmigration of souls was a central tenet that the Druides taught.

An artistic conception of a nemeton (sanctuary) in watercolour by Jean-Claude Blanchet.

A nemeton is a sanctuary in which the Dêuoi were worshipped. This is a place where locals would gather for rites and sacrifices. Nemetâ (plural of nemeton) were known for being enclosed in a boundary wall. The reason for this is to delineate the purpose built area for engaging in public worship. Presumably to separate it from the realms of everyday life, ensuring a peaceful environment for the worship to take place. This type of sanctuary is quite common throughout the world, though the forms differ. People of course engaged in rites and worship outside of such places as well. The importance of this separation is not to denigrate daily life, but simply to put things in their respective places and contexts. Having a cordoned off place of worship allows for prayer and contemplation to take place uninhibited, and without distraction.

We’ve touched a bit on the basics of cosmological structure, and spoke of the Dêuoi a little. The way their relationship worked tended to be a matter of giving offerings in exchange for the blessings the Dêuoi provide (good harvests, victory in battle, healing, etc). Offerings and inscriptions related to the Dêuoi are often among those things which are found preserved. Giving in exchange for raton (grace, blessing) was generally the idea of interactions with the Dêuoi. On the surface, this looks more transactional than anything else. However, the exchange of gifts wasn’t something only done in relation to the Dêuoi, it was done between peoples and nations to signify mutual good will.  This is fairly common in most cultures even today, where ambassadors and envoys exchange gifts and of course we may do this with our friends and family. There isn’t an explicit expectation of something in return for the gift, but in accepting it, it’s implied that the receiving party will in turn when opportunity arises also give a gift. In a society whose economy relied on exchange of prestige goods, this was the normal mode of operation. Gifts weren’t always tangible, so service in battle, working land, etc were also included in this process. The return could be protection, hospitality, or it could be an exchange of goods. Just as these types of bonds instilled cantoi ratî (circles of gifting/grace) between people, households, settlements, regions, and nations, it did this for those entities and andonioi (non-human persons) as well as the Dêuoi. 

There were certain protocols that were observed during their rites. One was to turn to the right, perhaps because the sun and the moon, and so day, night, the flow of time and the beginnings thereof all rise from the east. Thus the flow of rites would be from right to left. This is also why clockwise direction is stressed. To provide in part a quote previously shared from an earlier section, (which is a quote of a quote) Athenaeus quotes Poseidonius in his work ‘Deipnosophists’ (4.36) in reference to feasts, but it must be remembered that these were rituals:

“…beginning at the right hand and going on to the left; and this is the way in which they are waited on, and in which they worship the gods, always turning towards the right hand.”

Athenaeus quotes Poseidonius in his work ‘Deipnosophists’ 4.36

The worship of ancestors played a strong role in the customs of the Senogalatîs. This may appear contradictory considering their belief in reincarnation, but it need not be. Regardless of where the souls of their ancestors ended up there are still the memories of their presence and deeds that lasted far longer than their lives. The Senogalatîs understood this very well. It was as such not uncommon that parts of their ancestors be removed and buried in places the family hoped they’d stand guard. Equally so, the heads of both ancestors and slain enemies held great prominence. So much so it is said that a head was worth more than its weight in gold. This has led some to believe that the Senogalatîs believed the soul to reside in the head and it is a fair assumption due to the prominence of heads in their art, their value placed on heads and the fact that it is the head that holds everything that makes us, us. An important thing to know about things like worship in Senogalaticos society is that it generally wasn’t seen as a personal thing. Undoubtedly, this did occur, but it wasn’t at the centre of the experience. It was generally communal via the household, the locality, and in certain cases – centred on great public assemblies. There also wasn’t a distinction between what we now think of as culture and religion. The two were inextricably intertwined. This is a foreign concept to most Westerners today but well understood elsewhere. Attending the worship gatherings, sacrifices was simply a part of life as a member of a given household, locality, or nation. It probably wouldn’t have occurred to most to bother making such a distinction otherwise. The Dêuoi were ever present in the land and sky. As much so as the houses, forests, rivers, mountains around them. Also as much as the baker, blacksmith, farmer, Rix, and Druið.

Speaking of this, and of the last kind of person named – the Druið, they had an incredibly powerful presence in Senogalaticos society. They are perhaps the most enigmatic facet of Senogalaticos society, they who most capture the contemporary imagination as they did those of foreign writers of their time. But who were they? The popular imagination renders them a sort of group of sages living in the woods, ancient wise men fulfilling almost too conveniently the “noble savage” stereotype. The truth is, we don’t know as much about the Druides as we’d like. But what we know conflicts with this oversimplified imagery. This quote from Poseidonius (thanks to Phillip Freeman’s ‘The Philosopher and the Druids’ states:

“There are three groups among the Gauls who are given special honor—bards, vates, and Druids. The bards are singers and poets, while the vates supervise sacrifices and study the ways of nature. The Druids also study nature but devote themselves to morality as well. The Gauls consider the Druids the most just of all their people, and so they are given the role of judge in all public and private disputes. In the past, they were even able to halt battles and bring an end to wars. Murder cases are especially given to the Druids for judgment. The Gauls believe that when condemned criminals are sacrificed, then the land will prosper. The Druids and other Gauls all say that the soul is immortal and the universe is indestructible, but that at some time in the future, both fire and water will prevail.”

(Freeman, Philip. The Philosopher and the Druids: A Journey Among the Ancient Celts . Simon & Schuster. Kindle Edition.)

It’s certainly true that the Druides were seen as wise. That much is not in question. They were so esteemed by our ancestors that they were exempt from both military service and taxation (Caesar relates this in his book). In the matter of worship, the topic of this section, they also held a preeminent role. They served as intermediaries between the people and the Dêuoi. This may seem odd to Westerners in particular from Protestant cultural mores (after all, those folks literally rebelled against the notion) but it is not as strange as it may seem to such people. As if you are sick, you may go to a doctor. If your car breaks down, you may go to a mechanic. In short, we often turn to a professional when we need something done that requires a degree of technical know-how or expertise. It was as much the same with Druides. You didn’t need them to contact the Dêuoi per se. After all, people were doing so before and after (presumably also during) the time of the Druides. But it helped to have someone who was an expert in ritual practice and prayer. They understood the lore and traditions associated with the Dêuoi and knew how to speak to them in the most optimal way in prayer. They also had the ability to counsel folks seeking their aid in the best courses of action. Their advice and suggestions were so valued that they also served as judges. Their harshest punishment not being death, but denial of attendance at sacrifices. To be cut off from these sacred rites was to in essence be shunned by the community. To be shunned in such a way meant that one was essentially a non-entity in their community. Without community, one’s chances of survival diminished and their lives would have been incredibly difficult. This is equally true today even if our more atomized world leads us to think otherwise. After all, most people do not build their own homes, grow their own food, and make literally everything that they need to survive. We may be far less connected to the sources of these things than our ancestors were, but that truth remains equally salient today.

Their prophesying of how the future fate of the world was also eerily foreboding. That fire and water would prevail as mentioned by Strabo. Even without the concerns posed by climate change, this would still be true. In the course of the sun’s expansion into becoming a red giant, our planet will become hotter, melting all ice (water) and eventually incinerating the planet (fire). This is predicted to happen millions of years from now. Let us all hope that our own species doesn’t make it happen sooner.

However, not only the Druids, but others as well, say that men’s souls, and also the universe are indestructible, although both fire and water at some time or other prevail over them.

Strabo, “Geographica”, iv, 4, c. 197, 4

For the Bardoi and Uatîs, they served very different functions. Bardoi in this case would have sung praises to the Dêuoi and would have well known the lore of their people. Uatîs would interpret the signs (divination) that the Dêuoi used sometimes to communicate, such as flight patterns of birds. A Uatis also knew the technical side of sacrifice and were entrusted with the work of performing them. The Druides, to close, were natural philosophers who were highly esteemed. It was said to take around 20 years to teach one how to be a Druið. As everything they taught had to be memorized. But for everyone else, Diogenes Laertius in his ‘Vitæ Philiosophorum’ says the Druides stressed three maxims to the people:

Dugie Dêuûs “Honor the Gods”
Gneie ne drucon “Do no evil”
Delge āxtam “Hold your behavior”

With that, this section comes to a close. There are several books about the subject of Senogalaticos spirituality that this humble commentary could only scratch the surface.

More reading on Senogalaticos spirituality:

Gaulish Polytheism, Gaulish Polytheist

Continue to Chapter Eleven: Clauiâ (Conclusion)